The present invention relates to a process of producing polyphenolic adhesive proteins from mussel feet, such proteins being referred to here as MAP. The invention also relates to MAP-products produced by the process.
The term MAP is an acronym of the English term Mussel Adhesive Protein. The designation is based on the production of the protein concerned from a gland in the feet of mussels. The protein adheres strongly to all types of surfaces, e.g. to live cells and to other materials such as stone, wood and similar materials located under water. The mussels thus adhere to some appropriate underwater object and there live out their lives.
Mussel adhesive protein has a molecular weight of about 130,000 and consists of 75-85 repeated sequences of hexapeptides and decapeptides. The protein contains up to 20% lysine and an unusually high proportion, up to 50%, of hydroxy-containing amino acids, such as hydroxy prolines, serines, treonines, tyrosines, and (what is highly unusual in a polypeptide) 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA). The DOPA groups constitute 10-15% of the adhesive protein.
The adhesive strength of MAP per unit of weight is comparable with that of synthetic cyanoacrylate and epoxy resins. MAP is also water-resistant and binds very effectively in water and adheres very effectively to many solid and semi-solid surfaces, such as to glass, metal, biological tissue and plastics, even to Teflon(copyright) surfaces.
The high lysine concentration of mussel adhesive protein probably contributes to its good adhesion, particularly via ion bonds to negatively charged surfaces, such as to many proteins and polysaccharides.
The very high hydroxyl content and the orthodiphenolic nature of the DOPA groups are probably responsible for the unique water-repellent property of mussel adhesive protein and, consequently, for its ability to adhere to under water objects and to cure in such environments.
The hydroxyamino acids also contribute significantly towards hydrogen bonds in achieving the adhesive strength.
The orthodiphenolic DOPA-radicals form strong chelates with metal ions and oxides and semimetals such as silicon. This is an essential part of the ability of mussel adhesive protein to adhere to stone, glass and like surfaces.
DOPA is oxidised to a quinone through molecular oxygen and is considered to react with biogenic amines to form strong covalent bonds. Intermolecular bonds to, inter alia, lysine radicals are contributory to the xe2x80x9cinnerxe2x80x9d adhesion and a stronger adhesive bond.
Mussel adhesive protein is well tolerated in biological systems. It is non-toxic and is generally biocompatible and exhibits but small or no antigenicity. This makes it potentially useful for many purposes, such as with adhesive biofilm for immobilising cells and enzymes, as a moisture compatible adhesive for dental treatment, as an additive to or a replacement for sutures in the treatment of wounds and sores, for fixating and healing complicated bone fractures, as a matrix for medicines that have a delayed effect, and so on. Mussel adhesive protein can also be used as an anti-corrosive agent simply by coating, e.g., steel surface with a thin mussel adhesive protein film that binds to the iron atoms in the steel.
A process for producing mussel adhesive protein that contains DOPA and hydroxy proline (hyp) is described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,496,397. This process is based on mussel feet and involves forming an aqueous extract of the proteins to which there is then added a borate at pH 7.0-9.0 to produce a soluble borate complex of the DOPA-containing protein whilst precipitating out the impurities. The borate complex is then separated and treated in various ways, such as with an acetic acid solution or lyophilized in an inert atmosphere. The proteins produced in accordance with this process have a purity factor of at least 0.10, whereas a product of maximum purity should have a factor greater than 0.16.
A further process of producing mussel adhesive protein is described in the publication Protein Expression and Purification 1 147 150 (1990). This publication describes the production of mussel adhesive protein (MAP) on the basis of mussel feet, where the proteins are extracted in a solution containing Tris-HCL (pH 7.5, the pH buffer) NaCl, EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid), EGTA (Ethylene glycol bis(amino allyl ether) N,N,N,N, tetra acetic acid), PMSF (Phenylmethylsulphonylfluoride), KCN, NEM (N-Ethyl maleamide) and trypsine-inhibitor from soya beans. The suspension is separated into a solid and a liquid layer and the solid layer is homogenized in diluted acetic acid that contains PMSF and 2-mercaptoethanol. Subsequent to centrifugation, concentrated perchloric acid is added dropwise to the liquid layer which is then centrifuged and the liquid layer again collected. The liquid layer is then mixed with cold acetone that contains TritonX 100, HCL and 2-mercaptoethanol. The mussel adhesive proteins then precipitate and are recovered for later processing.
Technical Problem
The aforedescribed process and also other known process for the production of mussel adhesive proteins require the use of a number of auxiliary chemicals and result in a low yield and relatively impure products in respect of certain mussel species. They are also time-consuming and uneconomical.
Solution
It has long been desired to produce mussel adhesive proteins in an economic manner on a larger scale while obtaining products of desired purity. Accordingly, there is provided in accordance with the present invention a process of producing mussel adhesive protein products from mussel feet. The process is characterised by extracting the mussel feet in a weakly acid aqueous solution that contains, e.g., 1-10 percent by weight of a weak acid and 0.5-3 percent by weight perchloric acid, whereafter solid substances are removed from the solution and the proteins precipitated by adding organic or inorganic salts and the protein precipitate then separated from the solution.
According to the invention, convenient precipitation salts are sodium chloride, potassium chloride, ammonium sulphate, ammonium acetate, sodium sulphate, potassium sulphate in a concentration of 5-15 percent by weight of the solution.
According to the invention, the separated proteins are suitably re-dissolved in diluted acetic acid and the non-dissolved material is then separated from the system. According to the invention, perchloric acid is suitably added to the re-dissolved and separated protein solution for selective precipitation of undesirable proteins, whereafter the precipitate is separated from the system.
According to the invention, it is beneficial to subject the separated solution to dialysis in diluted acetic solution, in order to remove perchloric acid and low molecular weight material. According to the invention, the mussel adhesive protein in solution can be precipitated out by adding ethanol, propanol or acetone, and then separated from the system and optionally re-dissolved in diluted acetic acid.
The invention also relates to mussel adhesive proteins produced in accordance with the above process.